Do unions contribute to creative destruction?

We apply a shift-share approach and historical unionisation data from 1918 to study the impact of regional unionisation changes in Norway on regional wage and productivity growth, job-creation and -destruction and social security uptake during the period 2003-2012. As unionisation increases, wages grow. Lay-offs through plant closures and shrinking workplaces increase, causing higher retirement rates, while job creation, plant entry and other social security uptakes are unaffected. Productivity grows, partly by enhanced productivity among surviving and new firms and partly by less productive firms forced to close due to increased labour costs. Thus, unions promote creative destruction.

Impact of decreasing the proportion of higher energy foods and reducing portion sizes on food purchased in worksite cafeterias: A stepped-wedge randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Overconsumption of energy from food is a major contributor to the high rates of overweight and obesity in many populations. There is growing evidence that interventions that target the food environment may be effective at reducing energy intake. The current study aimed to estimate the effect of decreasing the proportion of higher energy (kcal) foods, with and without reducing portion size, on energy purchased in worksite cafeterias. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This stepped-wedge randomised controlled trial (RCT) evaluated 2 interventions: (i) availability: replacing higher energy products with lower energy products; and (ii) size: reducing the portion size of higher energy products. A total of 19 cafeterias were randomised to the order in which they introduced the 2 interventions. Availability was implemented first and maintained. Size was added to the availability intervention. Intervention categories included main meals, sides, cold drinks, snacks, and desserts. The study setting was worksite cafeterias located in distribution centres for a major United Kingdom supermarket and lasted for 25 weeks (May to November 2019). These cafeterias were used by 20,327 employees, mainly (96%) in manual occupations. The primary outcome was total energy (kcal) purchased from intervention categories per day. The secondary outcomes were energy (kcal) purchased from nonintervention categories per day, total energy purchased per day, and revenue. Regression models showed an overall reduction in energy purchased from intervention categories of -4.8% (95% CI -7.0% to -2.7%), p < 0.001 during the availability intervention period and a reduction of -11.5% (95% CI -13.7% to -9.3%), p < 0.001 during the availability plus size intervention period, relative to the baseline. There was a reduction in energy purchased of -6.6% (95% CI -7.9% to -5.4%), p < 0.001 during the availability plus size period, relative to availability alone. Study limitations include using energy purchased as the primary outcome (and not energy consumed) and the availability only of transaction-level sales data per site (and not individual-level data). CONCLUSIONS: Decreasing the proportion of higher energy foods in cafeterias reduced the energy purchased. Decreasing portion sizes reduced this further. These interventions, particularly in combination, may be effective as part of broader strategies to reduce overconsumption of energy from food in out-of-home settings. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN registry ISRCTN87225572.

On the value(s) of time: Workers' value of their time depends on mode of valuation.

In this paper, we investigate how individuals make time-money tradeoffs in labor contexts in which they are either asked to work to earn money or to pay money to avoid work. Theory predicts that exchange rates between time and money are invariant to the elicitation method. Results from our experiments, however, show otherwise, highlighting inconsistencies in how individuals consider their time. In the first two experiments, participants work to earn money, and we compare two incentivized elicitation methods. In the first, "Fixed-Time mode," we fix the amount of time participants need to work and elicit the minimum dollar amount they require to do the job. In the second, "Fixed-Money mode," we fix the amount of money we pay participants and ask for the maximum amount of time they are willing to work for that pay. We similarly vary elicitation procedures in Experiment 3 for paying money to avoid work. Translating the results into pay per hour, we find that in Fixed-Time mode, valuation of time is stable across durations, based on an analytical approach. By contrast, in Fixed-Money mode, participants increase their pay-per-hour demand when the amount of money increases, indicating a less calculated and more emotional view of time. Our results demonstrate that individuals' value of their time of labor can be fluid and dependent on the compensation structure. Our findings have implications for theories of time valuation in the labor market.

A Scoping Review of Economic Evaluations of Workplace Wellness Programs.

OBJECTIVE: Debates about the effectiveness of workplace wellness programs (WWPs) call for a review of the evidence for return on investment (ROI) of WWPs. We examined literature on the heterogeneity in methods used in the ROI of WWPs to show how this heterogeneity may affect conclusions and inferences about ROI. METHODS: We conducted a scoping review using systematic review methods and adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. We reviewed PubMed, EconLit, Proquest Central, and Scopus databases for published articles. We included articles that (1) were published before December 20, 2019, when our last search was conducted, and (2) met our inclusion criteria that were based on target population, target intervention, evaluation method, and ROI as the main outcome. RESULTS: We identified 47 peer-reviewed articles from the selected databases that met our inclusion criteria. We explored the effect of study characteristics on ROI estimates. Thirty-one articles had ROI measures. Studies with costs of presenteeism had the lowest ROI estimates compared with other cost combinations associated with health care and absenteeism. Studies with components of disease management produced higher ROI than programs with components of wellness. We found a positive relationship between ROI and program length and a negative relationship between ROI and conflict of interest. Evaluations in small companies (≤500 employees) were associated with lower ROI estimates than evaluations in large companies (>500 employees). Studies with lower reporting quality scores, including studies that were missing information on statistical inference, had lower ROI estimates. Higher methodologic quality was associated with lower ROI estimates. CONCLUSION: This review provides recommendations that can improve the methodologic quality of studies to validate the ROI and public health effects of WWPs.

Reexamining the persisting wage gap between male and female PAs.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the magnitude of any difference in total compensation between male and female physician assistants (PAs) after controlling for personal and workplace factors related to compensation. METHODS: Using data from the 2019 AAPA Salary Survey, the authors conducted a sequential regression analysis to examine the relationship between a variety of personal and practice demographics and total compensation. RESULTS: After controlling for compensation-related factors, a wage gap between male and female PAs persisted: female PAs were paid almost $0.93 for every $1 male PAs were paid in the first year of work ($9,010 less). This wage gap widened by $201 for every year of work experience. CONCLUSIONS: A wage gap between male and female PAs persists even after including all compensation types and controlling for compensation-related factors that may differ between male and female PAs. Proposed policy implications could begin to mitigate the gap.

Practical, rapid, and cost-efficient interior architectural precautions for prevention of COVID-19 in the workplace.

BACKGROUND: During the COVID-19 pandemic, it has been essential for some workplaces to stay open. Considering the rapid spread of the virus, interior architectural re-designing of these essential workplaces such as markets, banks, and drugstores is crucial for prevention. The employees, as well as the customers in these workplaces, have a high infection rate. Some precautions need to be taken urgently to prevent the spread of the disease. Some workplaces may have already performed their action plan whereas others have not. OBJECTIVE: Some practical, rapid, and cost-efficient preventive precautions are presented in this paper for employers to take action in their workplaces. METHODS: Two new proposals are advised to be carried out. The contents of these newly designed barriers will be introduced. RESULTS: Some practical and cost-efficient ideas are given within this report. CONCLUSION: All the preventions proposed in this paper are claimed to reduce the spread of COVID-19 and may save lives around the country as well as the world.

Impact of migraine on workplace productivity and monetary loss: a study of employees in banking sector in Malaysia.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Productivity and monetary loss due to migraine in the workplace may be substantial. This study aimed to determine the impact of migraine on productivity and monetary lost among employees in the banking sectors, in a multiethnic middle income country. METHODS: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted among employees in two multinational banks in Malaysia between April and July 2019. Screening for migraine was conducted using the self-administered ID-Migraine™ questionnaire. Migraine-related disability (MIDAS) and headache frequency were recorded. Impact of migraine on work productivity and activities were evaluated using the Work Productivity and Activity Impairment (WPAI) questionnaire. RESULTS: Of the 1268 employees who submitted complete responses, 47.2% (n = 598) were screened positive for migraine. Strikingly, the mean percent productivity loss at work (presenteeism) was almost 20-fold higher than the mean percent work time missed due to migraine (absenteeism) (39.1% versus 1.9%). The mean percent productivity loss in regular activity (activity impairment) and overall work productivity loss (work impairment) was 38.4% and 39.9%, respectively. It was also found that the costs related to presenteeism (MYR 5392.6) (US$1296) was 3.5-fold higher than absenteeism (MYR1,548.3) (US$370). Highest monetary loss related to presenteeism was reported in migraineurs with frequency of headache of above 3 days (MYR 25,691.2) (US$6176), whereas highest monetary loss related to absenteeism was reported in migraineurs with MIDAS grade IV (MYR 12,369.1) (US$2973). Only 30% of migraineurs of MIDAS grade IV reported taking prescribed medication. Notably, a vast majority (96%) of migraineurs who had three or lower episodes of migraine per month did not seek treatment. CONCLUSION: The significant impact of migraine on work productivity and regular activity, appears to lead to substantial monetary loss attributed to not only absenteeism, but more importantly to presenteeism. This study also highlights the unmet needs in migraine management among employees in the banking sector.

Hazard Pay for COVID-19? Yes, But It's Not a Substitute for a Living Wage and Enforceable Worker Protections.

The COVID-19 pandemic is exposing critical failures in public and occupational health in the United States. So-called hazard pay for essential workers is a necessary but insufficient response to the lack of workplace protections. The roots of these failures in the weakening of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration enforcement and pandemic preparedness and the dramatic shifts in the economy and labor market in recent decades are explored along with the history of hazard pay. The current prominence of COVID-19-related workplace hazards, and the mobilization by both nonunion and union workers experiencing them, presents opportunities amid the crisis and tragic losses to envision a revival of worker protection measures. Strategies are needed for organizing and legislative advocacy to address the disparate impact of both normal and crisis conditions on low-wage workers, especially women and workers of color.

Economic analysis of new workplace technology including productivity and injury: The case of needle-less injection in swine.

Increasing intensification in swine production has led to new and specialized technologies, but the occupational health and safety impacts are rarely quantified in the business plans for adoption. Needle-less injection has potential to increase productivity and eliminate needle stick injury in workers, but it is not clear whether these benefits offset high capital investment and potential increases in musculoskeletal loads. This economic evaluation employed probabilistic scenario analysis using injury, cost, and production data gathered from interviews with swine producers in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. After adoption of needle-less injection, rates of needle-stick injury went down with no measureable effect on upper limb musculoskeletal disorders, resulting in lower health and safety costs for needle-less injectors. Needle-less injection duration was 40% faster once workers acclimatized, but large start-up costs mean economic benefits are realized only after the first year. The incremental benefit cost ratio promoted adoption of needle-less injectors over conventional needles for the base case of a 1200 sow barn; the conventional method is beneficial for barns with 600 sows or less. Findings indicate that well-designed technologies have the potential to achieve the dual ergonomics goals of enhancing human wellbeing and system performance. We anticipate that the economic and decision models developed in this study can be applied to other new technologies in agriculture and animal production.

The value of lost productivity from workplace bullying in Ireland.

BACKGROUND: Workplace bullying is a pervasive problem with significant personal, social and economic costs. Estimates of the resulting lost productivity provide an important societal perspective on the impact of the problem. Understanding where these economic costs fall is relevant for policy. AIMS: We estimated the value of lost productivity to the economy from workplace bullying in the public and private sectors in Ireland. METHODS: We used nationally representative survey data and multivariable negative binomial regression to estimate the independent effect of workplace bullying on days absent from work. We applied the human capital approach to derive an estimate of the annual value of lost productivity due to bullying by sector and overall, in 2017. RESULTS: Bullying was independently associated with an extra 1.00 (95% CI: 0.38-1.62) days absent from work over a 4-week period. This differed for public and private sector employees: 0.69 (95% CI: -0.12 to 1.50) versus 1.45 (95% CI: 0.50-2.40) days respectively. Applying official data, we estimated the associated annual value of lost productivity to be €51.8 million in the public sector, €187.6 million in the private sector and €239.3 million overall. CONCLUSIONS: The economic value of lost productivity from workplace bullying in Ireland is significant. Although bullying is more prevalent in the public sector, it has a larger effect on absence in the private sector. Given this, along with the greater overall share of employees, productivity losses from bullying are considerably larger in the private sector in Ireland.

"If We Don't Produce, Bring Another:" Work Organization and Tomato Worker Health.

Objectives: Specific work processes and management structures that contribute to high rates of occupational illness and injury in agricultural industries are not well described in academic literature. This qualitative study of work organization in the U.S. fresh tomato industry investigates how work processes and management structures impact tomato workers' occupational health. Methods: After conducting literature review and key informant interviews, semi-structured interviews and focus groups were conducted with 36 individuals with experience working in the U.S. fresh tomato industry. Interviews and focus groups were audio-recorded, transcribed, coded, and analyzed using a modified grounded theory approach. Results: These data indicate that participants endured income insecurity and hazardous supervisory practices, including wage theft, retaliation, intimidation, and humiliation, that put them at risk of preventable illness and injury. Support from workers' organizations and health-conscious supervisory practices helped mitigate some of these occupational hazards. Conclusion: Participants' adverse work experiences may be considered sequelae of workers' lack of job control and positions of socioeconomic structural vulnerability. Other aspects of tomato work organization, including health-conscious supervisory practices and the involvement of workers' organizations, indicate that modifying work organization to better safeguard health is possible. Such modifications present compelling opportunities for employers, employees, organizations, community and government leaders, and health care professionals to help create healthier occupational environments for tomato workers.

Open Office Space: The Wave of the Future for Academic Health Centers?

Facing space constraints similar to those experienced by many urban campuses, the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) looked to innovative office workplace design to curb growing facilities expenditures. Mission Hall, a new office building primarily for desktop and clinical researchers and staff, was designed as an activity-based workplace (ABW), a type of open-space design. ABW was simultaneously being proposed as the template for future UCSF desktop research workspaces. ABWs can be less costly to construct than other designs, and their mix of shared and open workspaces is intended to improve efficiency and interaction. Evaluations of ABWs in corporate settings have yielded mixed results. Examples of ABW buildings for faculty in academic health centers (AHCs) are rare.The Mission Hall experience provided a unique opportunity to understand the impact of an ABW design on faculty satisfaction, work effectiveness, well-being, and engagement. In a 2016 survey of faculty, 1 year after occupancy, respondents reported adverse changes in all 4 areas. The most common complaints involved noise exposure and lack of visual and auditory privacy. In response to these issues, faculty reported working at home or elsewhere more frequently, making collaboration more difficult. In 2018, UCSF retrofitted the building to create some private offices and adjusted its overall program to balance private office and open workspaces in future projects.Lessons drawn from this experience can inform workplace solutions at other AHCs. Most critical are the needs to assess functional requirements of work and align design, change management, and technologies to support those requirements.

Health economic evaluations of interventions to increase physical activity and decrease sedentary behavior at the workplace: a systematic review.

Objective The workplace is an ideal setting to implement public health strategies, but economic justification for such interventions is needed. Therefore, we performed a critical appraisal and synthesis of health economic evaluations (HEE) of workplace interventions aiming to increase physical activity (PA) and/or decrease sedentary behavior (SB). Methods A comprehensive search filter was developed using appropriate guidelines, such as the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) checklist, and published search algorithms. Six databases and hand searches were used to identify eligible studies. Full HEE of workplace interventions targeting PA/SB were included. Methodological quality was assessed using the Consensus Health Economic Criteria (CHEC) list. Two researchers independently performed all procedures. Hedges' g was calculated to compare intervention effects. Outcomes from HEE were recalculated in 2017 euros and benefit-standardized. Results Eighteen HEE were identified that fulfilled on average 68% of the CHEC list criteria. Most studies showed improvements in PA/SB, but effects were small and thus, their relevance is questionable. Interventions were heterogeneous, no particular intervention type was found to be more effective. HEE were heterogeneous regarding methodological approaches and the selection of cost categories was inconsistent. Indirect costs were the main cost driver. In all studies, effects on costs were subject to substantial uncertainty. Conclusions Due to small effects and uncertain impact on costs, the economic evidence of worksite PA/SB-interventions remains unclear. Future studies are needed to determine effective strategies. The HEE of such interventions should be developed using guidelines and validated measures for productivity costs. Additionally, studies should model the long-term costs and effects because of the long pay-back time of PA/SB interventions.

Cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analysis of a work-place smoking cessation intervention with and without financial incentives.

AIMS: To perform an economic evaluation of a work-place smoking cessation group training programme with incentives compared with a training programme without incentives. DESIGN: A trial-based cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) and cost-utility analysis (CUA) from a societal perspective and an employer's perspective. SETTING: Sixty-one companies in the Netherlands. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 604 tobacco-smoking employees. INTERVENTION AND COMPARATOR: A 7-week work-place smoking cessation group training programme. The intervention group earned gift vouchers of €350 for 12 months' continuous abstinence. The comparator group received no incentives. MEASUREMENTS: Online questionnaires were administered to assess quality of life (EQ-5D-5 L) and resource use during the 14-month follow-up period (2-month training period plus 12-month abstinence period). For the CEA the primary outcome measure was carbon monoxide (CO)-validated continuous abstinence; for the CUA the primary outcome was quality-adjusted life years (QALY). Bootstrapping and sensitivity analyses were performed to account for uncertainty. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) tables were used to determine cost-effectiveness from a life-time perspective. FINDINGS: Of the participants in the intervention group, 41.1% had quit smoking compared with 26.4% in the control group. From a societal perspective with a 14-month follow-up period, the ICER per quitter for an intervention with financial incentives compared with no incentives was €11 546. From an employer's perspective, the ICER was €5686. There was no significant difference in QALYs between the intervention and control group within the 14-month follow-up period. The intervention was dominated by the comparator in the primary analysis at a threshold of €20 000 per QALY. In the sensitivity analysis, these results were uncertain. A life-time perspective showed an ICER of €1249 (95% confidence interval = €850-2387) per QALY. CONCLUSIONS: Financial incentives may be cost-effective in increasing quitting smoking, particularly from a life-time perspective.

A systematic review of work accommodations for people with mental disorders.

BACKGROUND: Work accommodations are adjustments made in the work place or to policies surrounding employment to accommodate an individual with a mental disorder to be successful in completing work related tasks. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this systematic review is to identify work accommodations that are available and that are provided to individuals with mental disorders. In addition, associated cost-effectiveness and cost-benefits of these accommodations are examined. METHODS: Studies published between 1990-2016 from four databases were reviewed. From these databases, studies that specified accommodations that were available/provided and/or addressed cost-effectiveness or cost-benefit analysis of work accommodations were included. RESULTS: Of the 1362 eligible studies, only 15 were included. Work accommodations that were provided to individuals assisted in mitigating limitations in the work place and improved length of job tenure, as well as reduced the severity of certain mental disorders. The costs associated with these accommodations were found to be minimal and had positive economic benefits for employers. CONCLUSION: Work accommodations help individuals with mental disorders meet employment expectations with minimal cost.

Impact of interventions on work-related outcomes for individuals with musculoskeletal injuries after road traffic crash: a systematic review protocol.

BACKGROUND: Musculoskeletal injuries are the most common non-fatal injury from road traffic crashes. Even when the injuries are mild, they can cause pain which can affect return to work rates and work ability post-crash. Workplace output losses are the biggest cost from traffic crash-related injuries. There is a need to identify effective interventions that can improve work-related outcomes (e.g. time to return to work, sick leave, and work ability) in this group and a need to understand the intervention components, external factors, and participant characteristics that may be associated with improvement. METHODS: A systematic review will be conducted using seven databases and search terms related to road traffic crash, musculoskeletal injury, work-related outcomes, and study design. Intervention studies will be eligible if they report on at least one work-related outcome, include adults with a traffic crash-related musculoskeletal injury (e.g. fracture or whiplash), include a comparison group, and are written in English. Interventions can be medical, therapeutic, work-based, multicomponent, or other. Two researchers will independently screen titles and abstracts, review full texts for inclusion in the review, and perform the data extraction. The main outcomes of the review will be time until return to work and duration of sick leave. The results will be narratively described, with meta-analyses conducted where possible. DISCUSSION: This review will explore the effectiveness of interventions in individuals with traffic crash-related musculoskeletal injury on work-related outcomes and will act as a useful source for researchers, policy makers, and stakeholders when developing and implementing interventions in this group. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42018103746.

Clinical and cost-effectiveness of guided internet-based interventions in the indicated prevention of depression in green professions (PROD-A): study protocol of a 36-month follow-up pragmatic randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: People in green professions are exposed to a variety of risk factors, which could possibly enhance the development of depression. Amongst possible prevention approaches, internet- and mobile-based interventions (IMIs) have been shown to be effective and scalable. However, little is known about the effectiveness in green professions. The aim of the present study is to examine the (cost-)effectiveness of a tailored IMI program for reducing depressive symptoms and preventing the onset of clinical depression compared to enhanced treatment as usual (TAU+). METHODS: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted to evaluate a tailored and therapeutically guided preventive IMI program in comparison to TAU+ with follow-ups at post-treatment (9 weeks), 6-, 12-, 24-, and 36-months. Entrepreneurs in green professions, collaborating spouses, family members and pensioners (N = 360) with sufficient insurance status and at least subthreshold depression (PHQ-9 ≥ 5) are eligible for inclusion. Primary outcome is depressive symptom severity (QIDS-SR16). Secondary outcomes include incidence of depression (QIDS-SR16), quality of life (AQoL-8D) and negative treatment effects (INEP). A health-economic evaluation will be conducted from a societal perspective. The IMI program is provided by psychologists of an external service company and consists of six guided IMIs (6-8 modules, duration: 6-8 weeks) targeting different symptoms (depressive mood, depressive mood with comorbid diabetes, perceived stress, insomnia, panic and agoraphobic symptoms or harmful alcohol use). Intervention choice depends on a screening of participants' symptoms and individual preferences. The intervention phase is followed by a 12-months consolidating phase with monthly contact to the e-coach. DISCUSSION: This is the first pragmatic RCT investigating long-term effectiveness of a tailored guided IMI program for depression prevention in green professions. The present trial builds on a large-scale strategy for depression prevention in green professions. The intended implementation of the IMI program with a nationwide rollout has the potential to reduce overall depression burden and associated health care costs in case of given effectiveness. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trial Registration: DRKS00014000 . Registered on 09 April 2018.

The Cost of Managing Occupational Injuries Among Frontline Construction Workers in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: The cost burden of occupational injuries has significant effects on the social well-being of workers. Although there seems to be growing evidence on the cost burden on other public health issues, little is known about occupational injuries, especially in low- to middle-income countries including Ghana. OBJECTIVE: This study, therefore, sought to estimate the cost burden of managing occupational injuries among frontline construction workers. METHODS: A prevalence-based cost of illness approach was used to estimate the cost burden of construction injuries. A structured questionnaire was used to collect cost-related data from 640 frontline construction workers. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate direct and indirect cost of injuries using Microsoft Excel and STATA version 14. RESULTS: Overall, a worker spends an average of GHC 104.84 ($24.52) and GHC 180.89 ($42.31) as direct and indirect costs, respectively. Compared with other injuries, fracture had the highest average cost, GHS 343.33 ($80.30), and concussion and internal injury recorded the lowest cost. Also, compared with other trade specialties, carpenters had the highest average cost burden and laborers had the lowest burden. CONCLUSION: There is high direct and indirect cost for managing occupational injury among construction workers. Advocacy and awareness about workplace insurance and regulatory policies should adequately be strengthened and prioritized through periodic monitoring and evaluations.

Work environment investments: Critical elements for success in optimizing occupational health and safety effects.

BACKGROUND: A considerable amount of money is invested annually in workplaces to promote creative, comfortable and safe work environments. The processes and effects of these investments are however not sufficiently studied. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this article is to examine work environment investment processes and identify organizational critical elements for optimizing investment in terms of occupational health and safety effects for employees. METHODS: Twelve case studies were conducted in different sectors. The data was collected through interviews, by studying available documents, and, in several cases, observations and measurement of hazards by means of the PIMEX-method. RESULTS: The empirical results yielded seven different critical elements for work environment investment processes. The critical elements identified were: identifying the need, risk assessment, involvement of staff, consultation with OHS expertise, procurement and delivery, implementation and training of workers, and evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: The critical elements have wide similarities with steps outlined in Swedish Work Environment Management processes, and ideas described in the Plan-Do-Act-Check model. If organizations follow this process, they are provided with improved possibilities for maximizing invested money for a safer working environment.

The Role of Work-Family Balance Policy for Enhancing Social Sustainability: A Choice Experiment Analysis of Koreans in their Twenties and Thirties.

Korea is facing problems, such as inequality within society and an aging population, that places a burden on public health expenditure. The active adoption of policies that promote work-family balance (WFB), such as parental leave and workplace childcare centers, is known to help solve these problems. However, there has, as yet, been little quantitative evidence accumulated to support this notion. This study used the choice experiment methodology on 373 Koreans in their twenties and thirties, to estimate the level of utility derived from work-family balance policies. The results show that willingness to pay for parental leave was found to be valued at 7.81 million Korean won, while it was 4.83 million won for workplace childcare centers. In particular, WFB policies were found to benefit workers of lower socioeconomic status or belonging to disadvantaged groups, such as women, those with low education levels, and those with low incomes. Furthermore, the utility derived from WFB policies was found to be greater among those who desire children compared to those who do not. The results suggest that the proactive introduction of WFB policies will help solve problems such as inequality within society and population aging.